PA.I.C.K2· K

Weather products for preflight

Acceptable weather products and resources for preflight planning, current and forecast weather

This element is about the weather products themselves — what each one is, what it tells you, when to use it, and how it fits into the documented preflight briefing under .

Current observations

Current observations for what's happening. Forecasts for what's expected. Hazard advisories for what could hurt you. Synoptic charts for the picture they all sit inside.

What's happening right now at the airport or along the route.

METAR

The hourly surface observation, plus SPECIs when conditions change between hours. Format: station, time (Zulu), wind, visibility, weather phenomena, sky condition, temperature/dewpoint, altimeter, remarks.

Weather products

METAR / TAF decoder

Hover any segment to decode it. Switch scenarios to see different weather.

Scenario

KPHX 031453Z 27015G22KT 10SM FEW250 32/M02 A2992 RMK AO2 SLP128

Hover any segment of the METAR above to decode it. Switch scenarios to see different weather.

Or skim the full decode:

STNKPHXICAO identifier — KPHX
TIME031453ZDay 03, 14:53 Zulu (UTC)
WIND27015G22KT270° at 15 kt gusting 22
VIS10SM10 statute miles
SKYFEW250Few clouds (1–2 oktas) at 25,000 ft AGL
T/DP32/M0232°C / -2°C — spread 34°C
ALTA299229.92" Hg
RMKRMKRemarks follow
RMKAO2 SLP128Coded supplementary data — sea level pressure, sensor type, precip details, etc.

A worked example:

KPHX 031453Z 27015G22KT 10SM FEW250 32/M02 A2992 RMK AO2 SLP128

KPHX — station
031453Z — 3rd of the month, 1453 Zulu
27015G22KT — wind 270° at 15, gusting 22 (gust group required when spread is 10+ KT)
10SM — visibility 10 statute miles
FEW250 — few clouds at 25,000 ft AGL
32/M02 — temperature 32°C, dewpoint −2°C (M = minus)
A2992 — altimeter 29.92" Hg
RMK AO2 SLP128 — automated station with precipitation discriminator, sea level pressure 1012.8 hPa

Watch for closing temperature/dewpoint spread (fog risk), wind shifts, falling pressure, and gusts.

On-airport observations

ATIS — Automatic Terminal Information Service, human-recorded at towered fields (D-ATIS is the digital version)
ASOS — Automated Surface Observing System, full sensor suite, most common
AWOS — Automated Weather Observing System, older, capability varies (AWOS-A through AWOS-3, 3PT, 3T)

PIREPs

The only real-time human observation from cockpit altitude. Two types per AIM 7-1-19:

Routine (UA) — typical conditions
Urgent (UUA) — severe or extreme turbulence, severe icing, low-level wind shear, hail, volcanic ash, tornado, funnel cloud, or waterspout

Read PIREPs when checking en route weather. File yours when conditions matter — sparse coverage is a national problem and silence helps no one.

Forecast products

What's expected over the next few hours to a day or two.

TAF

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast — a 5 SM radius around a selected airport
Valid 24 or 30 hours
Issued four times daily at 00, 06, 12, 18 Zulu
Available at selected airports only (typically Class C/D and major non-towered)

Change groups inside a TAF:

FM — definite change at a specific time (from)
TEMPO — temporary fluctuation, less than half the period
BECMG — gradual change
PROB30 / PROB40 — probability of conditions

For airports without a TAF: nearest TAF + GFA + METAR trends.

Graphical Forecast for Aviation

Interactive map-based forecast on aviationweather.gov/gfa
Replaced the legacy textual Area Forecast around 2017
Layers: clouds, visibility, weather, winds, icing, turbulence, convection
Selectable by altitude and forecast hour: 15 hours of observations plus 18 hours of forecasts

Winds and Temperatures Aloft

Forecast wind (true direction, speed in KT) and temperature (°C)
Standard altitudes: 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 34, 39 thousand feet
No 3,000-ft value within 1,500 ft of station elevation
No temperature reported at the 3,000-ft level

High-wind encoding rule: speeds 100+ knots add 50 to the direction code and subtract 100 from the speed. Example: 7305-55 decodes as 230° at 105 KT, −55°C.

Hazard advisories

When the NWS sees something hazardous, three product types issue separately by severity and who's affected.

AIRMETs

Hazardous to light aircraft. Issued every 6 hours, valid 6 hours.

AIRMET Sierra — IFR conditions and mountain obscuration
AIRMET Tango — moderate turbulence and sustained surface winds 30+ KT
AIRMET Zulu — moderate icing and freezing levels

SIGMETs

Hazardous to all aircraft. Severe weather not associated with thunderstorms. Valid up to 4 hours (6 hours for hurricanes and volcanic ash).

Severe or extreme turbulence
Severe icing
Widespread dust or sandstorms reducing visibility below 3 SM
Volcanic ash

Convective SIGMETs

Thunderstorm-specific severe-weather product, issued separately. Issued hourly at H+55, valid up to 2 hours.

Severe thunderstorms
Embedded thunderstorms
Lines of thunderstorms
Hail ≥ 3/4 inch
Tornadoes

A Convective SIGMET along your route is a deviate / delay / cancel signal.

Synoptic and hazard charts

The picture every individual product sits inside. Best read first, before METARs and TAFs — synoptic context is the chapter that makes individual paragraphs readable.

Surface Analysis and Surface Prog

Surface Analysis — observed state: current fronts, isobars, pressure centers
Surface Prog — forecast: same elements at 12, 18, 24, and 36 hours
Use them together

Front symbols: cold (blue triangles), warm (red half-circles), stationary (alternating), occluded (purple, both shapes). Isobars at 4-mb intervals; close spacing means strong wind.

Weather chart symbols

Surface analysis chart legend

Standardized depictions — fronts, pressure systems, sky cover, wind, weather.

Fronts

Cold front

Cold air mass advancing — temperature drops sharply, gusty winds, often a sharp line of showers/thunderstorms.

Warm front

Warm air mass advancing — gradual lift over the cold wedge, widespread stratiform cloud, steady precipitation.

Stationary front

Boundary with little movement — extended periods of cloud and precipitation along the line.

Occluded front

Cold front overtakes warm front, lifting the warm sector aloft — embedded thunderstorms hide in stratiform cloud.

Trough

Elongated area of lower pressure — often a focus for shower and thunderstorm activity.

Pressure systems

High pressure

Descending air, generally clear and stable weather — anticyclonic (clockwise) flow.

Low pressure

Rising air, often associated with cloud, precipitation, and instability — cyclonic (counter-clockwise) flow.

Isobars

Lines of equal sea-level pressure, drawn at 4-mb intervals. Tight spacing means strong pressure gradient and strong winds.

Sky cover

Sky clear

0/8 coverage — no cloud.

Few

1–2/8 coverage.

Scattered

3–4/8 coverage.

Broken

5–7/8 coverage — first ceiling layer at this report level.

Overcast

8/8 coverage.

Sky obscured

Visibility from the ground straight up is restricted (fog, smoke, heavy precipitation).

Wind barbs

Calm

0 knots — single open circle.

5 kt

Half barb.

10 kt

One full barb.

20 kt

Two full barbs (sum of barb values).

50 kt

One pennant (filled triangle).

100 kt

Two pennants — add pennants/barbs to get the total.

Stem points from the wind direction. Barbs sit on the stem’s right side (the side pointing toward low pressure).

Weather symbols

Rain

Three vertical dots.

Snow

Six-pointed stars.

Drizzle

Curved comma marks.

Fog

Horizontal parallel lines.

Thunderstorm

Stylized lightning bolt.

Hail

Filled triangle.

Showers

Chevron over a dot — intermittent precipitation.

Full standardized depiction reference: FAA AC 00-45 (Aviation Weather Services) and the NWS Surface Analysis user guide. This card covers the most common symbols a Part 91 GA pilot encounters at the synoptic level.

Icing forecast

Current and forecast layers on aviationweather.gov
Selectable by altitude and severity
Cross-reference against the freezing level chart and FB temperatures aloft

Turbulence forecast

Current and forecast layers
Pair with PIREPs for ground truth

Radar and satellite

Composite radar (NEXRAD) for precipitation
Satellite (visible / IR / water vapor) for cloud cover and moisture

The briefing flow

A documented preflight briefing satisfies and is the operational anchor for the products above. Per , the FAA-approved sources are aviationweather.gov and 1800wxbrief.com (Leidos). EFB apps delivering a Leidos-backed standard briefing carry the same documented-record status.

Three briefing types

All three are available via 1-800-WX-BRIEF (voice) or 1800wxbrief.com (web), producing the same logged record either way:

Standard — full preflight briefing, 1-6 hours before flight; adverse conditions, VNR if applicable, synopsis, current, en route, destination, winds aloft, NOTAMs, ATC delays
Abbreviated — update a previous briefing or get a specific item ("any new SIGMETs since 14Z?")
Outlook — 6+ hours before flight, forecast-focused, for planning the day

ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot can deliver a Leidos standard briefing with the same logged status.

Sequence to brief in

Synoptic — Surface Analysis and Surface Prog
Current — METARs at departure, en route, destination; PIREPs along the track
Forecast — TAFs, GFA, winds and temps aloft
Hazards — AIRMETs, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs
Radar and satellite
NOTAMs and TFRs

Synthesize: are conditions legal and within personal minimums for departure, en route, and destination? Are diverts available? Modify (time, route, altitude) before going binary go/no-go.

Worked examples:

Convective SIGMET along route. Issued at 14Z, valid until 16Z, covering a 100 NM corridor between you and your destination. Aircraft impact: severe turbulence, lightning, possible microburst near any cell. VFR avoidance is 20 NM minimum, never under an overhang, never through a line. Options: deviate around, delay until the system passes, or scrub. If the destination is inside the SIGMET footprint at your arrival time, you need a divert with its own confirmed weather.
Destination airport with no TAF. Build the picture from the nearest TAF (typically within 30-50 miles), the GFA covering the destination area, METARs from neighboring airports for trend, and PIREPs if available. Weight local effects higher if the destination is mountainous or has known microclimate behavior (sea breeze, lake-effect, valley fog).

Common DPE questions

Ideal answer
Current observations: METARs at departure, en route, and destination, plus PIREPs along the route. Forecasts: TAFs for forecast airports, the GFA for area conditions, winds and temps aloft, AIRMETs and SIGMETs for hazards, prog charts for the synoptic picture. Add radar/satellite for thunderstorm activity, the icing and turbulence forecasts (especially in winter), and the freezing level chart. End with NOTAMs and TFRs — not weather, but part of the same briefing.
Key points to mention
- Current: METARs (DEP/ENR/DEST), PIREPs, ASOS/AWOS/ATIS
- Forecast: TAFs, GFA, winds and temps aloft, AIRMETs, SIGMETs
- Synoptic / hazard: prog charts, radar/satellite, icing, turbulence, freezing level
- Operational: NOTAMs, TFRs
- Cross-check products against each other — never rely on one
REF: AC 00-45
Ideal answer
KPHX, observed on the 3rd at 1453 Zulu. Wind 270 at 15, gusting 22. Visibility 10 statute miles. Few clouds at 25,000 feet. Temperature 32°C, dewpoint minus-2°C. Altimeter 29.92. Remarks: AO2 (automated with precip discriminator), sea-level pressure 1012.8 hPa. Big-picture read: hot, dry, gusty, severe-clear day.
Key points to mention
- Station, day, time Zulu — 'Z' = UTC
- Wind: ddd ff G ff KT — gust group when spread is 10+ KT
- Visibility in statute miles (SM)
- Sky cover: SKC/CLR/FEW/SCT/BKN/OVC, height in hundreds of feet AGL
- Temp/dewpoint in °C; M = minus
- Altimeter: A then in.Hg × 100 (A2992 = 29.92)
- RMK = remarks; AO2 = auto with precip sensor
- Spread between temp and dewpoint matters for fog risk
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 3
Ideal answer
A METAR is an observation — what's happening now. A TAF is a forecast — what's expected over a 24- or 30-hour period within a 5-statute-mile radius of the airport. TAFs are issued four times daily (00, 06, 12, 18 Zulu) for selected airports — typically Class C/D and major non-towered. Change groups: FM (from), TEMPO, BECMG, and PROB30/40 for changing conditions. For airports without a TAF, use the nearest TAF + the GFA + METAR trends. TAFs do not include temperature/dewpoint.
Key points to mention
- METAR = observation; TAF = forecast
- TAF: 24- or 30-hour, 5 SM radius
- Issued 4× daily: 00, 06, 12, 18 Zulu
- Only at selected airports
- Change groups: FM, TEMPO, BECMG, PROB30/PROB40
- No temp/dewpoint in TAF
- No TAF? — nearest TAF + GFA + METAR trends
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 5; AIM 7-1-31
Ideal answer
Both are inflight weather advisories. SIGMETs are issued for severe phenomena hazardous to ALL aircraft: severe/extreme turbulence, severe icing, dust/sandstorms reducing visibility below 3 SM, and volcanic ash. Convective SIGMETs are a separate product for severe thunderstorms, embedded TS, lines, hail ≥ 3/4 inch, or tornadoes. AIRMETs are issued for weather hazardous to light aircraft: Sierra (IFR conditions, mountain obscuration), Tango (moderate turbulence, surface winds 30+ knots), and Zulu (moderate icing and freezing levels). AIRMETs valid 6 hours; SIGMETs up to 4 hours; Convective SIGMETs up to 2 hours.
Key points to mention
- SIGMET — hazardous to ALL aircraft
- SIGMET phenomena: severe/extreme turb, severe icing, widespread dust/sand < 3 SM vis, volcanic ash
- Convective SIGMET — separate product for severe TS, lines, hail, tornadoes
- AIRMET — hazardous to light aircraft / inexperienced IFR
- Sierra: IFR + mountain obscuration
- Tango: moderate turb, surface winds 30+ KT
- Zulu: moderate icing, freezing levels
- Validity: AIRMET 6 hr, SIGMET up to 4 hr, Convective SIGMET up to 2 hr
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 7; AIM 7-1-6
Ideal answer
Synoptic first — Surface Analysis and Surface Prog — to understand any frontal activity. Then current observations: METARs for departure, en route, and destination, plus PIREPs along my track. Forecasts: TAFs for forecast airports, GFA covering the rest, winds and temps aloft, AIRMETs and SIGMETs for hazards. Radar and satellite for convection. NOTAMs and TFRs from 1800wxbrief.com. Then synthesize: are conditions VFR-legal AND within my personal minimums for departure, en route, destination? Are there divert options? Do I need to delay, reroute, or change altitude? File a flight plan and pull a documented standard briefing through 1800wxbrief.com or ForeFlight so there's a logged record satisfying 91.103.
Key points to mention
- Sequence: synoptic → current → forecast → hazards → radar/satellite → NOTAMs/TFRs
- Synoptic: Surface Analysis + Surface Prog
- Current: METARs (departure/route/destination), PIREPs
- Forecast: TAFs, GFA, winds/temps aloft
- Hazards: AIRMETs, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs
- Radar/satellite for convection check
- NOTAMs/TFRs always part of the briefing
- Documented briefing through 1800wxbrief.com or EFB → logged record (91.103)
REF: 14 CFR 91.103; AC 91-92
Ideal answer
Standard: full preflight briefing, 1-6 hours before departure. Covers adverse conditions, VNR if applicable, synopsis, current, en route, destination, winds aloft, NOTAMs, ATC delays. Abbreviated: update a previous briefing or get a specific item — 'just give me current conditions' or 'any new SIGMETs since 14Z?' Outlook: 6+ hours before departure to plan the day, forecast-focused. All three available via 1-800-WX-BRIEF (voice) or 1800wxbrief.com (web), both producing the same logged record. ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot can deliver standard briefings through Leidos with the same status.
Key points to mention
- Standard: full briefing, 1–6 hours before flight
- Standard contents: adverse, VNR, synopsis, current, en route, destination, winds aloft, NOTAMs, ATC delays
- Abbreviated: update or specific item
- Outlook: 6+ hours before flight, forecast-focused
- Web self-briefing produces the same logged record as a phone call
- ForeFlight/Garmin Pilot deliver Leidos briefings with same status
REF: AIM 7-1-2; AC 91-92
Ideal answer
The synoptic picture — Surface Analysis and Surface Prog on aviationweather.gov. Why first: if there's a major front, low pressure system, or stationary pattern affecting the route, it sets the context for everything else. Looking at METARs first is like reading individual paragraphs without the chapter — you see numbers but miss the story. Synoptic answers: what big systems are in play and where they're going. Then current → forecast → hazards → radar → NOTAMs.
Key points to mention
- Start with synoptic: Surface Analysis + Surface Prog
- Synoptic sets context for interpreting individual products
- Without synoptic = paragraphs without the chapter
- Then: current → forecast → hazards → radar → NOTAMs
- Each layer adds detail, doesn't replace
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 11; AC 91-92
Ideal answer
Use the nearest TAF as a starting point — usually within 30-50 miles for most CONUS airports — then refine with the GFA covering my destination area, METARs from neighboring airports for current trend, PIREPs if available, and the synoptic picture. The nearest TAF gives me the broad forecast; the GFA gives an area read; neighboring METARs give actual conditions trending toward arrival. If the destination is mountainous or has microclimate effects (lake-effect, sea breeze, valley fog), I'd weight local effects higher. Build the picture from multiple products rather than rely on a single far-away source.
Key points to mention
- Nearest TAF as starting point
- GFA for area-wide forecast
- Neighboring METARs for current trend
- PIREPs if available
- Synoptic for context
- Mountainous/microclimate destinations: weight local effects higher
- Build picture from multiple products
REF: AC 00-45; AC 91-92
Ideal answer
A Convective SIGMET indicates severe TS, embedded TS, lines, hail ≥ 3/4 in, or tornadoes — hazardous to ALL aircraft, valid up to 2 hours. Aircraft impact: severe turbulence, hail, lightning, microburst near any cell. Pilot impact: VFR avoidance is mandatory — 20 NM minimum, never under an overhang, never through a line. Route impact: deviate, hold short, or delay until the system passes. Destination/alternate impact: if the SIGMET covers my destination, I need a divert with its own confirmed weather. Timing: a 2-hour SIGMET issued at 14Z is valid until 16Z; if my arrival is 17Z, the immediate threat may be gone but the system likely persists, so reassess at decision points.
Key points to mention
- Convective SIGMET = severe TS, embedded, lines, hail ≥ 3/4 in, tornadoes
- Validity: up to 2 hours; reissued as needed
- Aircraft impact: severe turb, hail, lightning, microburst
- 20 NM minimum avoidance; never under overhang; never through a line
- Route: deviate, hold, or delay
- Destination/alternate: need clear divert WITH ITS OWN weather
- Embedded TS in stratiform — can't see them
REF: AIM 7-1-6; AC 00-45 Ch. 7
Ideal answer
AIRMET Zulu = moderate icing, hazardous to light aircraft. Freezing level is the floor of the icing layer; if it's below my cruise altitude, I'm at risk in visible moisture. Aircraft impact: ice degrades lift, increases drag, blocks pitot/static, ice on the prop reduces efficiency. Non-deiced 172 has zero anti-ice. Outs: descend to warmer air below freezing, climb above (rarely possible in a 172), or divert. Route: pick altitudes above freezing OR stay in clear air below the bases. If clouds are forecast at my altitude and the freezing level is below me, that's a stop-the-flight condition. Mitigation: depart when freezing level is highest (afternoon), pick altitude in clear air below bases, have a divert with warmer surface temps.
Key points to mention
- AIRMET Zulu = moderate icing; light aircraft hazard
- Freezing level = floor of the icing layer
- Non-deiced 172 has zero ice protection
- Outs: descend to warm air; climb above (rarely possible); divert
- VFR rule: avoid visible moisture when temps can be at/below freezing
- Route: pick altitude above freezing OR in clear air below bases
- Diverts must have warmer surface temps for descent recovery
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 7; AC 91-74
Ideal answer
Wind 270° at 15 gusting 25 — direct down runway 27, headwind only with no crosswind. Numbers within most light aircraft limits, but the gust factor matters: 10 KT spread means turbulence in the pattern, possible LLWS on short final, energy management challenges. Aircraft impact: more rudder for centerline, gust-affected airspeed control, longer landing roll if I carry extra airspeed. Pilot impact: crosswind currency isn't tested here, but gust-handling proficiency is — am I current with 10+ KT gust spreads? En route: surface 25 KT implies turbulence; AIRMET Tango threshold is 30 KT sustained. Mitigation: brief the gust on approach, add half the gust factor (5 KT) to approach speed, accept longer roll. Different runway, same wind: 18/36 with 270/15G25 = 90° crosswind at gust value 25, which exceeds the 172's demonstrated 15 KT — that's a potentially unflyable scenario. Runway-relative analysis is the whole game.
Key points to mention
- Wind direction relative to runway = crosswind vs. headwind
- 27015G25 on runway 27 = headwind only, no crosswind
- Gust factor 10 KT = turbulence in pattern, possible LLWS
- Add half gust factor (5 KT) to approach speed
- Demonstrated crosswind component (172): 15 KT — exceeded with full crosswind
- AIRMET Tango threshold: 30 KT sustained
- Different runway changes the analysis completely
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 6; PHAK Ch. 12
Ideal answer
Multiple alarms in one PIREP. Severe turbulence is at the edge of positive control — slow to V_A. Freezing rain (ZR) with large droplets accumulating fast is the worst icing scenario for a non-deiced 172: large droplets means clear ice with heavy mass, far worse than rime in stratus. Aircraft impact: ice loads up quickly, control surfaces affected, weight increases, drag increases. Pilot impact: zero anti-ice tools. Outs: descend to warmer air below the freezing level — but ZR implies a warm layer aloft over a cold surface layer, so descending may put me into ice still on cold-soaked surfaces. Climbing above is unrealistic in a 172. Mitigation: divert immediately to airport with above-freezing surface temps; do NOT enter the affected layer; if I'm above when the PIREP comes in, descend through it ONLY with confirmed warm air below. This is a stop-the-flight PIREP.
Key points to mention
- Severe turbulence: aircraft momentarily out of control — slow to V_A
- ZR = large droplets, clear ice, fast accumulation
- ZR profile: warm aloft over cold surface — both layers can have ice
- Non-deiced 172 has zero defense against ZR
- Outs limited: descent only if confirmed warm air below
- Mitigation: divert to warm-surface airport; do NOT enter affected layer
- Stop-the-flight PIREP — file your own after diverting
REF: AC 91-74; AIM 7-1-19
Ideal answer
Geography: 5 SM radius — conditions a few miles outside can be different. Airport list: only selected airports, often missing for non-towered destinations. Issuance: 4× daily at 00, 06, 12, 18 Zulu — can be stale mid-period. Accuracy decays with forecast hour: first 6 hours reasonably reliable, the back end of a 30-hour forecast much less so. Change groups (FM, TEMPO, BECMG, PROB) introduce uncertainty by design — PROB30 means 30%, not a guarantee. Cross-check with METAR trends, GFA, neighboring TAFs, PIREPs.
Key points to mention
- Geography: 5 SM radius
- Airport coverage: only selected fields
- Issued 4×/day (00/06/12/18Z) — can be stale mid-period
- Accuracy decays with forecast hour
- Change groups (FM/TEMPO/BECMG/PROB) introduce uncertainty
- PROB30/40 = probability, not guarantee
- Cross-check with METAR trends, GFA, PIREPs, neighboring TAFs
REF: AC 00-45 Ch. 5; AIM 7-1-31
Ideal answer
PIREPs are subjective, sparse, and time-stamped. Subjective: 'moderate turbulence' from a 172 isn't the same as from a King Air. Sparse: rate depends on pilot willingness; many areas have no PIREPs at all. Time-stamped: a 30-minute-old PIREP may not represent now, especially in convective weather. Location imprecision — VOR-relative reports don't pin down moving cells. Despite all this, the only real-time human observation from cockpit altitude — high-value when used in combination, just not authoritative on its own. File yours when conditions matter.
Key points to mention
- Subjective: severity scales calibrated to typical training airplane; interpretation varies
- Sparse: depends on pilot willingness; many areas have NO PIREPs
- Time-stamped: 30-minute-old PIREP may not represent now
- Location imprecision: VOR-relative reporting
- Still high-value — only real-time human observation from cockpit altitude
- Combine with other products, don't trust alone
- File yours — silence helps no one
REF: AIM 7-1-19; AC 00-45 Ch. 4

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Multiple choice

What's the geographic coverage area of a TAF?

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PA.I.C.K3 · Meteorology for VFR flight

This is the meteorology element — the longest in Task C. The DPE expectation isn't recitation; it's that you can explain why the atmosphere behaves the way i…

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